From c681d3ee287302962bf43d9ffe702a7aa8ed8de4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Bill Currie <bill@taniwha.org>
Date: Sun, 23 Jun 2024 18:01:39 +0900
Subject: [PATCH] [qfcc] Tidy up the doc structure a little
Talking about variables in the types section didn't make much sense.
---
.gitignore | 1 +
tools/qfcc/doc/.gitattributes | 1 +
tools/qfcc/doc/qfcc.lyx | 3653 ++++++++++++++++++++-------------
3 files changed, 2221 insertions(+), 1434 deletions(-)
create mode 100644 tools/qfcc/doc/.gitattributes
diff --git a/.gitignore b/.gitignore
index ec93011a7..dfc715b68 100644
--- a/.gitignore
+++ b/.gitignore
@@ -20,6 +20,7 @@ ChangeLog
Makefile
Makefile.in
core
+\#*\#
# /
/.version
diff --git a/tools/qfcc/doc/.gitattributes b/tools/qfcc/doc/.gitattributes
new file mode 100644
index 000000000..0be47369b
--- /dev/null
+++ b/tools/qfcc/doc/.gitattributes
@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+*.lyx -whitespace
diff --git a/tools/qfcc/doc/qfcc.lyx b/tools/qfcc/doc/qfcc.lyx
index 7f2712f7c..bc631f8e4 100644
--- a/tools/qfcc/doc/qfcc.lyx
+++ b/tools/qfcc/doc/qfcc.lyx
@@ -1,2560 +1,3345 @@
-#LyX 1.3 created this file. For more info see http://www.lyx.org/
-\lyxformat 221
+#LyX 2.4 created this file. For more info see https://www.lyx.org/
+\lyxformat 620
+\begin_document
+\begin_header
+\save_transient_properties true
+\origin unavailable
\textclass scrbook
+\begin_preamble
+% Added by lyx2lyx
+\setlength{\parskip}{\medskipamount}
+\setlength{\parindent}{0pt}
+\end_preamble
+\use_default_options false
+\maintain_unincluded_children no
\language american
-\inputencoding latin1
-\fontscheme pslatex
+\language_package default
+\inputencoding iso8859-1
+\fontencoding auto
+\font_roman "times" "default"
+\font_sans "helvet" "default"
+\font_typewriter "courier" "default"
+\font_math "auto" "auto"
+\font_default_family default
+\use_non_tex_fonts false
+\font_sc false
+\font_roman_osf false
+\font_sans_osf false
+\font_typewriter_osf false
+\font_sf_scale 100 100
+\font_tt_scale 100 100
+\use_microtype false
+\use_dash_ligatures true
\graphics dvips
+\default_output_format default
+\output_sync 0
+\bibtex_command default
+\index_command default
\float_placement htb
\paperfontsize 12
-\spacing single
-\papersize letterpaper
-\paperpackage a4
-\use_geometry 1
-\use_amsmath 0
-\use_natbib 0
-\use_numerical_citations 0
+\spacing single
+\use_hyperref false
+\papersize letter
+\use_geometry true
+\use_package amsmath 1
+\use_package amssymb 1
+\use_package cancel 1
+\use_package esint 0
+\use_package mathdots 0
+\use_package mathtools 1
+\use_package mhchem 0
+\use_package stackrel 1
+\use_package stmaryrd 1
+\use_package undertilde 1
+\cite_engine basic
+\cite_engine_type default
+\biblio_style plain
+\use_bibtopic false
+\use_indices false
\paperorientation portrait
+\suppress_date false
+\justification true
+\use_refstyle 0
+\use_formatted_ref 0
+\use_minted 0
+\use_lineno 0
+\index Index
+\shortcut idx
+\color #008000
+\end_index
\leftmargin 1in
\topmargin 1in
\rightmargin 0.5in
\bottommargin 1in
\secnumdepth 2
\tocdepth 2
-\paragraph_separation skip
-\defskip medskip
-\quotes_language english
-\quotes_times 2
+\paragraph_separation indent
+\paragraph_indentation default
+\is_math_indent 0
+\math_numbering_side default
+\quotes_style english
+\dynamic_quotes 0
\papercolumns 1
\papersides 2
\paperpagestyle headings
+\tablestyle default
+\tracking_changes false
+\output_changes false
+\change_bars false
+\postpone_fragile_content false
+\html_math_output 0
+\html_css_as_file 0
+\html_be_strict false
+\docbook_table_output 0
+\docbook_mathml_prefix 1
+\end_header
-\layout Title
+\begin_body
+\begin_layout Title
The Ruamoko Programming Language
-\layout Author
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Author
Bill Currie
\begin_inset Formula $\bullet$
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
Jeff Teunissen
-\layout Publishers
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Publishers
QuakeForge Press
-\layout Uppertitleback
+\end_layout
-This manual is free; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the
- terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software
- Foundation; either version 2 of the License, or (at your option) any later
- version.
-\newline
+\begin_layout Uppertitleback
+This manual is free;
+ you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation;
+ either version 2 of the License,
+ or (at your option) any later version.
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-\newline
-This manual is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT
- ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS
- FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
+
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+This manual is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+ but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY;
+ without even the implied warranty of MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.
See the GNU General Public License for more details.
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-\newline
-You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along
- with this manual: if not, write to:
-\newline
-\newline
-Free Software Foundation, Inc.
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with this manual:
+ if not,
+ write to:
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+Free Software Foundation,
+ Inc.
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
59 Temple Place - Suite 330
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
Boston MA 02111-1307
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
USA
-\layout Lowertitleback
+\end_layout
-Copyright � 2002-2003 Bill Currie and Jeff Teunissen
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Lowertitleback
+Copyright © 2002-2003 Bill Currie and Jeff Teunissen
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+\begin_inset CommandInset toc
+LatexCommand tableofcontents
+
+\end_inset
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \tableofcontents{}
-
-\end_inset
-
-
-\layout Addchap
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Addchap
Preface
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-In December 1996, Id Software released
-\emph on
+\begin_layout Standard
+In December 1996,
+ Id Software released
+\emph on
Quake
-\emph default
+\emph default
to the world.
- It's doubtful that they knew at the time that it would spark a revolution
- -- but such a revolution happened.
- To the game industry's surprise, people were getting the game not just
- to play it, but to
-\emph on
+ It's doubtful that they knew at the time that it would spark a revolution – but such a revolution happened.
+ To the game industry's surprise,
+ people were getting the game not just to play it,
+ but to
+\emph on
change
-\emph default
- it\SpecialChar \@.
- For the first time, people could make whole new games based on the Quake
- engine without having to rewrite the whole game -- and in fact you couldn't
- rewrite the whole game, because the main source code wasn't available to
- the general public.
+\emph default
+ it\SpecialChar endofsentence
+ For the first time,
+ people could make whole new games based on the Quake engine without having to rewrite the whole game – and in fact you couldn't rewrite the whole game,
+ because the main source code wasn't available to the general public.
What
-\series bold
+\series bold
was
-\series default
- available was something new -- the game wasn't just a game, it was a virtual
- machine that had a byte-code instruction set -- and it had a compiler that
- you could use to make new games to run inside that engine.
+\series default
+ available was something new – the game wasn't just a game,
+ it was a virtual machine that had a byte-code instruction set – and it had a compiler that you could use to make new games to run inside that engine.
The language (called
-\emph on
+\emph on
QuakeC
-\emph default
-) was kind of crude, and the compiler was even more crude -- but it was
- a revolutionary development.
-\layout Standard
+\emph default
+) was kind of crude,
+ and the compiler was even more crude – but it was a revolutionary development.
+\end_layout
-Now, let's fast-forward to another December -- this time, three years later.
- In another revolutionary move, Id Software released the source code to
- the complete Quake engine.
+\begin_layout Standard
+Now,
+ let's fast-forward to another December – this time,
+ three years later.
+ In another revolutionary move,
+ Id Software released the source code to the complete Quake engine.
This gave many people the opportunity to do a lot more than just make
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
mods
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
for Quake.
- Instead, people could make all-new games without using Quake itself.
- Many projects started up around this source code, with many aims\SpecialChar \ldots{}
-but one
- project grew to be the most dominant: That project is
-\emph on
+ Instead,
+ people could make all-new games without using Quake itself.
+ Many projects started up around this source code,
+ with many aims\SpecialChar ldots
+but one project grew to be the most dominant:
+ That project is
+\emph on
QuakeForge
-\emph default
+\emph default
.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-QuakeForge has developed a number of interesting things involving the Quake
- engine, but most of them are beyond the scope of this manual.
+\begin_layout Standard
+QuakeForge has developed a number of interesting things involving the Quake engine,
+ but most of them are beyond the scope of this manual.
This manual documents the
-\emph on
+\emph on
Ruamoko
\begin_inset Foot
-collapsed true
+status collapsed
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+The name Ruamoko comes from the Maori name for their god of volcanoes and earthquakes.
+ According to myth,
+ Ruamoko is not yet born,
+ and when he shakes inside the Earth-mother,
+ the world trembles.
+\end_layout
-The name Ruamoko comes from the Maori name for their god of volcanoes and
- earthquakes.
- According to myth, Ruamoko is not yet born, and when he shakes inside the
- Earth-mother, the world trembles.
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\emph default
- language, a language based on Id Software's QuakeC, but which has been
- expanded in ways far beyond the original language.
-\layout Standard
-
-The idea behind this book is to give new programmers a solid foundation
- in both of the programming models (procedural and object-oriented) supported
- by the Ruamoko language, while giving experienced Ruamoko programmers a
- complete reference for development of game code.
-\layout Standard
+\emph default
+ language,
+ a language based on Id Software's QuakeC,
+ but which has been expanded in ways far beyond the original language.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
+The idea behind this book is to give new programmers a solid foundation in both of the programming models (procedural and object-oriented) supported by the Ruamoko language,
+ while giving experienced Ruamoko programmers a complete reference for development of game code.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset FloatList figure
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\layout Part
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Part
Classical Programming in Ruamoko
-\layout Chapter
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Chapter
+\begin_inset CommandInset label
+LatexCommand label
+name "cha:A-Tutorial-Introduction"
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \label{cha:A-Tutorial-Introduction}
+\end_inset
-\end_inset
-
-Introduction: Foot, Meet Mister Rocket Launcher
-\layout Standard
+Introduction:
+ Foot,
+ Meet Mister Rocket Launcher
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Let us begin with a quick introduction to Ruamoko.
Our aim here is to show the basic elements of the language in real programs,
but without getting bogged down in details or rules.
- At this point, we're not even trying to be complete, or even precise (except
- that the examples are meant to be correct).
- We want to get you as quickly as possible to the point where you can write
- useful programs, and to do that we have to concentrate on the basics: variables
- and constants, arithmetic, flow control, functions, and the rudiments of
- input and output.
- We are intentionally leaving out of this chapter features of Ruamoko that
- are important for writing bigger programs, or programs to run in an actual
- Quake engine.
- These include entities, structures, pointers, most of the operators, objects,
+ At this point,
+ we're not even trying to be complete,
+ or even precise (except that the examples are meant to be correct).
+ We want to get you as quickly as possible to the point where you can write useful programs,
+ and to do that we have to concentrate on the basics:
+ variables and constants,
+ arithmetic,
+ flow control,
+ functions,
+ and the rudiments of input and output.
+ We are intentionally leaving out of this chapter features of Ruamoko that are important for writing bigger programs,
+ or programs to run in an actual Quake engine.
+ These include entities,
+ structures,
+ pointers,
+ most of the operators,
+ objects,
and the standard builtin library.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
This approach has its drawbacks.
- Most notable is that the complete story on any particular language feature
- is not found here, and the brief tutorial, just by being brief, may be
- misleading.
- And because the examples don't use the full power of Ruamoko, they may
- not be as elegant or concise as they could be; we
-\series bold
+ Most notable is that the complete story on any particular language feature is not found here,
+ and the brief tutorial,
+ just by being brief,
+ may be misleading.
+ And because the examples don't use the full power of Ruamoko,
+ they may not be as elegant or concise as they could be;
+ we
+\series bold
have
-\series default
- tried to minimize these effects, but be warned.
- Another drawback is that later chapters will repeat some of what's presented
- here.
+\series default
+ tried to minimize these effects,
+ but be warned.
+ Another drawback is that later chapters will repeat some of what's presented here.
We hope that the repetition will help more than it annoys.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-In any case, experienced programmers should be able to get an idea, from
- this chapter, of some of the things that can be done in Ruamoko, for their
- own needs.
- Beginners should supplement it by writing small, similar programs of their
- own.
- Both groups can use it as a framework on which to hang the more detailed
- descriptions that begin in later chapters.
-\layout Section
+\begin_layout Standard
+In any case,
+ experienced programmers should be able to get an idea,
+ from this chapter,
+ of some of the things that can be done in Ruamoko,
+ for their own needs.
+ Beginners should supplement it by writing small,
+ similar programs of their own.
+ Both groups can use it as a framework on which to hang the more detailed descriptions that begin in later chapters.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
Getting Started
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-The best way to learn a new programming language is by writing programs
- in it.
+\begin_layout Standard
+The best way to learn a new programming language is by writing programs in it.
The first program one writes is almost always the same for all new languages:
print the phrase
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-Hello, world!
+Hello,
+ world!
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
on the screen.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
This is the big hurdle.
- To get past it, you have to be able to create the program text somewhere,
- compile it, load it successfully, load it, run it, and find out where the
- output went.
- With these mechanical details mastered, everything else is relatively easy.
-\layout Standard
-
+ To get past it,
+ you have to be able to create the program text somewhere,
+ compile it,
+ load it successfully,
+ load it,
+ run it,
+ and find out where the output went.
+ With these mechanical details mastered,
+ everything else is relatively easy.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Float figure
+placement document
+alignment document
wide false
-collapsed true
+sideways false
+status collapsed
-\layout LyX-Code
-\line_top \line_bottom
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\noindent
+\begin_inset CommandInset line
+LatexCommand rule
+offset "0.5ex"
+width "100line%"
+height "1pt"
-\begin_inset Include \verbatiminput{hello.r}
-preview false
-
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\layout Caption
+\begin_inset ERT
+status collapsed
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \label{cap:Hello-World}
+\backslash
+vspace{-1
+\backslash
+parskip}
+\end_layout
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+\begin_inset CommandInset include
+LatexCommand verbatiminput
+filename "hello.r"
+literal "true"
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\noindent
+\begin_inset CommandInset line
+LatexCommand rule
+offset "0.5ex"
+width "100line%"
+height "1pt"
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset Caption Standard
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset CommandInset label
+LatexCommand label
+name "cap:Hello-World"
+
+\end_inset
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
Hello World
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
A Ruamoko program that does this simple task is found in Figure
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \vref{cap:Hello-World}
+\begin_inset CommandInset ref
+LatexCommand vref
+reference "cap:Hello-World"
+nolink "false"
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
.
- To run this program, you first have to compile it.
- To compile it, you need to save the source code into a file (for example,
+ To run this program,
+ you first have to compile it.
+ To compile it,
+ you need to save the source code into a file (for example,
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
hello.r
-\family default
-), then compile it with the command
-\family typewriter
-\series bold
+\family default
+),
+ then compile it with the command
+\family typewriter
+\series bold
qfcc -o qwaq.dat hello.r
-\family default
-\series default
+\family default
+\series default
.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-If you haven't screwed anything up, such as omitting a character or misspelling
- something, the compilation will proceed.
- You should be rewarded with something that looks something like Figure
-
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \vref{cap:qfcc-output}
+\begin_layout Standard
+If you haven't screwed anything up,
+ such as omitting a character or misspelling something,
+ the compilation will proceed.
+ You should be rewarded with something that looks something like Figure
+\begin_inset CommandInset ref
+LatexCommand vref
+reference "cap:qfcc-output"
+nolink "false"
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
.
\begin_inset Float figure
+placement document
+alignment document
wide false
-collapsed true
-
-\layout LyX-Code
+sideways false
+status collapsed
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
-\begin_inset Include \verbatiminput{qfcc-output.txt}
-preview false
+\begin_inset CommandInset include
+LatexCommand verbatiminput
+filename "qfcc-output.txt"
+literal "true"
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\layout Caption
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset Caption Standard
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+
+\family typewriter
+\begin_inset CommandInset label
+LatexCommand label
+name "cap:qfcc-output"
+
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
-
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \label{cap:qfcc-output}
-
-\end_inset
-
-
-\series bold
+\series bold
qfcc
-\family default
-\series default
+\family default
+\series default
output
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
You run
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
qwaq.dat
-\family default
+\family default
by issuing the command
-\family typewriter
-\series bold
+\family typewriter
+\series bold
qwaq
-\family default
-\series default
+\family default
+\series default
.
The program should print
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
-Hello, world!
-\family default
+\family typewriter
+Hello,
+ world!
+\family default
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
to your screen.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-Now, for some explanations regarding the program itself.
- All Ruamoko programs, regardless of size, consist mainly of
-\emph on
+\begin_layout Standard
+Now,
+ for some explanations regarding the program itself.
+ All Ruamoko programs,
+ regardless of size,
+ consist mainly of
+\emph on
functions
-\emph default
+\emph default
and
-\emph on
+\emph on
variables
-\emph default
+\emph default
.
- A function contains statements that tell the compiler what computing operations
- you want to do, and variables store values used during the operation of
- the program.
- Ruamoko functions are roughly equivalent to C's functions, or Pascal's
- procedures and functions.
+ A function contains statements that tell the compiler what computing operations you want to do,
+ and variables store values used during the operation of the program.
+ Ruamoko functions are roughly equivalent to C's functions,
+ or Pascal's procedures and functions.
Our example is a function called
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
main
-\family default
+\family default
.
- You can create functions with just about any name you like, but
+ You can create functions with just about any name you like,
+ but
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
main
-\family default
+\family default
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
- is special -- program execution begins there
+ is special – program execution begins there
\begin_inset Foot
-collapsed true
-
-\layout Standard
+status collapsed
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
This is not precisely true.
- When used in a game engine, there are certain other functions that are
- called by the engine during the course of a game.
-\end_inset
+ When used in a game engine,
+ there are certain other functions that are called by the engine during the course of a game.
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
.
This means that every program must have a
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
main
-\family default
+\family default
function somewhere.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-The main function will usually call other functions to do its job -- some
- of them you write, and some of them are provided by the virtual machine
- your program runs inside.
+\begin_layout Standard
+The main function will usually call other functions to do its job – some of them you write,
+ and some of them are provided by the virtual machine your program runs inside.
The first lines of the program (the ones beginning with
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
#include
-\family default
+\family default
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
) tell the compiler to include information about the standard variables,
- constants,
-\emph on
+ constants,
+
+\emph on
fields
-\emph default
+\emph default
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \index{fields}
+\begin_inset Index idx
+range none
+pageformat default
+status collapsed
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+fields
+\end_layout
-, and
-\emph on
+\end_inset
+
+,
+ and
+\emph on
engine functions
\begin_inset Foot
-collapsed true
-
-\layout Standard
+status collapsed
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
also known as
-\emph on
+\emph on
builtins
-\emph default
+\emph default
.
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
-\emph default
+\emph default
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \index{functions, engine}
+\begin_inset Index idx
+range none
+pageformat default
+status collapsed
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+functions,
+ engine
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
provided by the environment
\begin_inset Foot
-collapsed true
-
-\layout Standard
+status collapsed
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
The environment will be described later.
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-One way of communicating data between functions is for the calling function
- to provide a list of values, called
-\emph on
+\begin_layout Standard
+One way of communicating data between functions is for the calling function to provide a list of values,
+ called
+\emph on
arguments
-\emph default
+\emph default
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \index{arguments}
+\begin_inset Index idx
+range none
+pageformat default
+status collapsed
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+arguments
+\end_layout
-, to the function it calls.
+\end_inset
+
+,
+ to the function it calls.
The parentheses after the function's name surround the
-\emph on
+\emph on
argument list
-\emph default
+\emph default
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \index{argument list}
+\begin_inset Index idx
+range none
+pageformat default
+status collapsed
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+argument list
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
.
- In this example, main is defined to be a function that expects no arguments,
- which is indicated by an empty list:\SpecialChar ~
+ In this example,
+ main is defined to be a function that expects no arguments,
+ which is indicated by an empty list:
+\begin_inset space ~
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
+
+\family typewriter
()
-\family default
+\family default
.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-The statements of a function are enclosed in curly braces,\SpecialChar ~
+\begin_layout Standard
+The statements of a function are enclosed in curly braces,
+\begin_inset space ~
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
+
+\family typewriter
{}
-\family default
+\family default
.
The function
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
main
-\family default
+\family default
contains only one statement,
-\family typewriter
- printf ("Hello, world!
-\backslash
+
+\family typewriter
+printf ("Hello,
+ world!
+\backslash
n")
-\family default
+\family default
.
This is a
-\emph on
+\emph on
function call
-\emph default
-, which transfers control from one function to another.
- A function is called by giving its name, followed by a list of arguments
- enclosed by parentheses, so this calls the function
-\family typewriter
+\emph default
+,
+ which transfers control from one function to another.
+ A function is called by giving its name,
+ followed by a list of arguments enclosed by parentheses,
+ so this calls the function
+\family typewriter
printf
-\family default
+\family default
with the argument
-\family typewriter
-"Hello, world!
-\backslash
+\family typewriter
+"Hello,
+ world!
+\backslash
n"
-\family default
+\family default
.
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
printf
-\family default
- is an engine function that prints output, in this case the string of characters
- between the quotes.
-\layout Standard
+\family default
+ is an engine function that prints output,
+ in this case the string of characters between the quotes.
+\end_layout
-A sequence of characters between double quotes, like
-\family typewriter
-"Hello, world!
-\backslash
+\begin_layout Standard
+A sequence of characters between double quotes,
+ like
+\family typewriter
+"Hello,
+ world!
+\backslash
n"
-\family default
-, is called a
-\emph on
+\family default
+,
+ is called a
+\emph on
string constant
-\emph default
+\emph default
or simply a
-\emph on
+\emph on
string
-\emph default
+\emph default
.
- For the moment, our only use of strings will be as arguments for
-\family typewriter
+ For the moment,
+ our only use of strings will be as arguments for
+\family typewriter
printf
-\family default
+\family default
and other functions.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The sequence
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
n
-\family default
+\family default
in the string is Ruamoko notation for the
-\emph on
+\emph on
newline character
-\emph default
-, which when printed tells the terminal (or a game client) to advance to
- the next line in the output.
+\emph default
+,
+ which when printed tells the terminal (or a game client) to advance to the next line in the output.
If you leave out the
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
n
-\family default
-, you will find that there is no advance after the character string is printed.
+\family default
+,
+ you will find that there is no advance after the character string is printed.
You must use
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
n
-\family default
- to include a newline character in the printf argument; if you try to insert
- a newline yourself into the string, the Ruamoko compiler will give you
- an error message when you compile the program.
-\layout Standard
-
+\family default
+ to include a newline character in the printf argument;
+ if you try to insert a newline yourself into the string,
+ the Ruamoko compiler will give you an error message when you compile the program.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Float figure
+placement document
+alignment document
wide false
-collapsed true
+sideways false
+status collapsed
-\layout LyX-Code
-\line_top \line_bottom
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\noindent
+\begin_inset CommandInset line
+LatexCommand rule
+offset "0.5ex"
+width "100line%"
+height "1pt"
-\begin_inset Include \verbatiminput{hello2.r}
-preview false
-
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\layout Caption
+\begin_inset ERT
+status collapsed
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \label{cap:A-different-Hello}
+\backslash
+vspace{-1
+\backslash
+parskip}
+\end_layout
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+\begin_inset CommandInset include
+LatexCommand verbatiminput
+filename "hello2.r"
+literal "true"
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\noindent
+\begin_inset CommandInset line
+LatexCommand rule
+offset "0.5ex"
+width "100line%"
+height "1pt"
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset Caption Standard
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset CommandInset label
+LatexCommand label
+name "cap:A-different-Hello"
+
+\end_inset
A different
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
Hello World
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
The
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
printf()
-\family default
- function never supplies a newline automatically, so several calls may be
- used to build up an output line in stages.
- Our first program could just as easily been written as it is in figure
-
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \vref{cap:A-different-Hello}
+\family default
+ function never supplies a newline automatically,
+ so several calls may be used to build up an output line in stages.
+ Our first program could just as easily been written as it is in figure
+\begin_inset CommandInset ref
+LatexCommand vref
+reference "cap:A-different-Hello"
+nolink "false"
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-, and it would have produced identical output.
-\layout Standard
+,
+ and it would have produced identical output.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Note that
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
n
-\family default
+\family default
represents only a single character.
An
-\emph on
+\emph on
escape character
-\emph default
+\emph default
like
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
n
-\family default
+\family default
gives you a general way to express hard-to-type or invisible characters.
Among the others are
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
t
-\family default
- for a tab,
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ for a tab,
+
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
b
-\family default
- for a backspace,
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ for a backspace,
+
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
"
-\family default
- for a double-quote, and
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ for a double-quote,
+ and
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
-\backslash
+\backslash
-\family default
+\family default
for the backslash character itself.
There is a complete list in [section]
-\layout Section
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
Variables and Mathematical Expressions
-\layout Standard
-
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Float figure
+placement document
+alignment document
wide false
-collapsed true
+sideways false
+status collapsed
-\layout LyX-Code
-\line_top \line_bottom
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\noindent
+\begin_inset CommandInset line
+LatexCommand rule
+offset "0.5ex"
+width "100line%"
+height "1pt"
-\begin_inset Include \verbatiminput{radians.r}
-preview false
-
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\layout Caption
+\begin_inset ERT
+status collapsed
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \label{cap:Degrees-to-radians}
+\backslash
+vspace{-1
+\backslash
+parskip}
+\end_layout
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+\begin_inset CommandInset include
+LatexCommand verbatiminput
+filename "radians.r"
+literal "true"
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\noindent
+\begin_inset CommandInset line
+LatexCommand rule
+offset "0.5ex"
+width "100line%"
+height "1pt"
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset Caption Standard
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset CommandInset label
+LatexCommand label
+name "cap:Degrees-to-radians"
+
+\end_inset
Degrees to radians
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
+
+
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
In figure
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \vref{cap:Degrees-to-radians}
+\begin_inset CommandInset ref
+LatexCommand vref
+reference "cap:Degrees-to-radians"
+nolink "false"
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-, we find a simple program uses the formula
+,
+ we find a simple program uses the formula
\begin_inset Formula $R=D\,\times\,(\frac{\pi}{180})$
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
to print a table of various angles in both their degrees and radian equivalents.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The line
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
/* Print a silly conversion table between degrees and radians */
-\family default
+\family default
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
and the three parts that say things like
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
// lower limit
-\family default
+\family default
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
are
-\emph on
+\emph on
comments
-\emph default
+\emph default
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \index{comments}
+\begin_inset Index idx
+range none
+pageformat default
+status collapsed
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+comments
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
.
Characters between
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
/*
-\family default
+\family default
and
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
*/
-\family default
-, and anything between
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+,
+ and anything between
+\family typewriter
//
-\family default
- and the next line, are ignored by the compiler; they may be used freely
- to make a program easier for humans to understand.
- Comments may appear anywhere a blank space, or a tab, or a newline can.
-\layout Standard
+\family default
+ and the next line,
+ are ignored by the compiler;
+ they may be used freely to make a program easier for humans to understand.
+ Comments may appear anywhere a blank space,
+ or a tab,
+ or a newline can.
+\end_layout
-In Ruamoko, all variables must be declared before they are used., usually
- at the beginning of the function before any statements.
+\begin_layout Standard
+In Ruamoko,
+ all variables must be declared before they are used.,
+ usually at the beginning of the function before any statements.
A declaration
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \index{declaration, variable}
+\begin_inset Index idx
+range none
+pageformat default
+status collapsed
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+declaration,
+ variable
+\end_layout
- announces the properties of variables to the compiler; it consists of a
- type name and a list of one or more variables, such as
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_inset
-float degrees, radians;
-\newline
-integer lower, upper, step;
-\layout Standard
+ announces the properties of variables to the compiler;
+ it consists of a type name and a list of one or more variables,
+ such as
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+float degrees,
+ radians;
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+integer lower,
+ upper,
+ step;
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
The type
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
float
-\family default
+\family default
means that the
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
degrees
-\family default
+\family default
and
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
radians
-\family default
- variables are floating-point numbers (numbers that can have a fractional
- part), and the type
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ variables are floating-point numbers (numbers that can have a fractional part),
+ and the type
+\family typewriter
integer
-\family default
+\family default
means that the
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
lower
-\family default
-,
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+,
+
+\family typewriter
upper
-\family default
-, and
-\family typewriter
-step
-\family default
- variables are integers -- that is, they are whole numbers.
-\layout Standard
-
-Unlike C, in which
-\family typewriter
-int
-\family default
+\family default
+,
and
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
+step
+\family default
+ variables are integers – that is,
+ they are whole numbers.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Unlike C,
+ in which
+\family typewriter
+int
+\family default
+ and
+\family typewriter
float
-\family default
- can have different sizes depending on the machine, Ruamoko variables always
- have a size that is a multiple of 4 bytes (32 bits).
-\layout Standard
+\family default
+ can have different sizes depending on the machine,
+ Ruamoko variables always have a size that is a multiple of 4 bytes (32 bits).
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Ruamoko provides four basic data types
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \index{types, basic}
+\begin_inset Index idx
+range none
+pageformat default
+status collapsed
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+types,
+ basic
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
:
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-
-\begin_inset Tabular
+\begin_layout Standard
+\begin_inset Tabular
<lyxtabular version="3" rows="4" columns="2">
-<features>
+<features tabularvalignment="middle">
<column alignment="left" valignment="top" width="0pt">
<column alignment="left" valignment="top" width="0pt">
<row>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
float
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
floating-point numbers
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
integer
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\family roman
-\series medium
-\shape up
-\size normal
-\emph off
-\bar no
-\noun off
+\family roman
+\series medium
+\shape up
+\size normal
+\emph off
+\bar no
+\noun off
\color none
-whole numbers, with a range between -2147483648 and 2147483647.
-\end_inset
+whole numbers,
+ with a range between -2147483648 and 2147483647.
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
string
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\family roman
-\series medium
-\shape up
-\size normal
-\emph off
-\bar no
-\noun off
+\family roman
+\series medium
+\shape up
+\size normal
+\emph off
+\bar no
+\noun off
\color none
text strings
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
<row>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
vector
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\family roman
-\series medium
-\shape up
-\size normal
-\emph off
-\bar no
-\noun off
+\family roman
+\series medium
+\shape up
+\size normal
+\emph off
+\bar no
+\noun off
\color none
three-dimensional floating-point vectors
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
</lyxtabular>
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-There are more types than just these four, but this is the list of
-\emph on
+\begin_layout Standard
+There are more types than just these four,
+ but this is the list of
+\emph on
basic types
-\emph default
+\emph default
.
There are also
-\emph on
+\emph on
arrays
-\emph default
-,
-\emph on
+\emph default
+,
+
+\emph on
structures
-\emph default
-, and
-\emph on
+\emph default
+,
+ and
+\emph on
unions
-\emph default
- of these basic types,
-\emph on
+\emph default
+ of these basic types,
+
+\emph on
pointers
-\emph default
- to them, and functions that return them, all of which we'll meet later.
-\layout Standard
+\emph default
+ to them,
+ and functions that return them,
+ all of which we'll meet later.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The computation in the conversion program begins with the assignment statements
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
lower = 0;
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
upper = 360;
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
step = 45;
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
which set the variables to their initial values.
- In Ruamoko, as in C, a statement is terminated by the semicolon character.
-\layout Standard
+ In Ruamoko,
+ as in C,
+ a statement is terminated by the semicolon character.
+\end_layout
-Each line of the table is computed in the same manner, so we use a loop
- that repeats once per output line; this is the purpose of the
-\family typewriter
+\begin_layout Standard
+Each line of the table is computed in the same manner,
+ so we use a loop that repeats once per output line;
+ this is the purpose of the
+\family typewriter
while
-\family default
+\family default
loop
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
while (degrees <= upper) {
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
\begin_inset Formula $\vdots$
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
}
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
while
-\family default
- loop works like this: The condition in parentheses is tested.
+\family default
+ loop works like this:
+ The condition in parentheses is tested.
If it is true (if
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
degrees
-\family default
+\family default
is less than or equal to
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
upper
-\family default
-), the body of the loop (the three statements enclosed in the block delimited
- by the curly braces) is executed.
- Then the condition is tested again, and if it's true again, the body is
- executed again.
+\family default
+),
+ the body of the loop (the three statements enclosed in the block delimited by the curly braces) is executed.
+ Then the condition is tested again,
+ and if it's true again,
+ the body is executed again.
If and when the condition becomes false (
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
degrees
-\family default
+\family default
exceeds
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
upper
-\family default
-), the loop ends and execution continues at the statement following the
- loop's end.
- Since there are no more statements in the program, the end of the loop
- terminates the program.
-\layout Standard
+\family default
+),
+ the loop ends and execution continues at the statement following the loop's end.
+ Since there are no more statements in the program,
+ the end of the loop terminates the program.
+\end_layout
-The body of a while loop can be one or more statements enclosed in braces
- (called a block, or compound statement), or a single statement without
- braces, as in
-\layout LyX-Code
+\begin_layout Standard
+The body of a while loop can be one or more statements enclosed in braces (called a block,
+ or compound statement),
+ or a single statement without braces,
+ as in
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
while (i < n)
-\newline
- i = i * 2;
-\layout Standard
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-In either case, we will always indent the statements controlled by the while
- by one tab stop (which we will show as four spaces), so you can see at
- a glance which statements are inside the loop.
+ i = i * 2;
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+In either case,
+ we will always indent the statements controlled by the while by one tab stop (which we will show as four spaces),
+ so you can see at a glance which statements are inside the loop.
The indentation emphasizes the logical structure of the program.
- The compiler does not care how your program looks, but proper indentation
- and spacing are critical in making programs easy for people (including
- you) to read.
- We recommend writing only one statement per line, and using blanks around
- operators to make groupings clear.
- The positions of braces is less important, though you should be warned
- that many programmers have passionate beliefs about how braces should be
- used.
+ The compiler does not care how your program looks,
+ but proper indentation and spacing are critical in making programs easy for people (including you) to read.
+ We recommend writing only one statement per line,
+ and using blanks around operators to make groupings clear.
+ The positions of braces is less important,
+ though you should be warned that many programmers have passionate beliefs about how braces should be used.
We have chosen the so-called
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
One True Brace Style
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-, which is the style that Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie used in their
- book
-\bar under
+,
+ which is the style that Brian Kernighan and Dennis Ritchie used in their book
+\bar under
The C Programming Language
-\bar default
-, for consistency.
- Pick a style that suits you, and use it consistently in your own work,
- but be prepared to adapt to the styles of other programmers when writing
- as a group.
-\layout Standard
+\bar default
+,
+ for consistency.
+ Pick a style that suits you,
+ and use it consistently in your own work,
+ but be prepared to adapt to the styles of other programmers when writing as a group.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Most of the work gets done inside the loop.
The radians for the angle are computed and assigned to the
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
radians
-\family default
+\family default
variable using the statement
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
radians = degrees * (PI / 180);
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
This example also shows a bit more of how
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
printf()
-\family default
+\family default
works.
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
printf()
-\family default
- is a general-purpose output formatting function, which we will describe
- in detail in [chapter].
- Its first argument is a string to be printed, with each
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ is a general-purpose output formatting function,
+ which we will describe in detail in [chapter].
+ Its first argument is a string to be printed,
+ with each
+\family typewriter
%
-\family default
- indicating where one of the other (second, third, and so on) arguments
- is to be substituted, and in what form it is to be output.
- For instance,
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ indicating where one of the other (second,
+ third,
+ and so on) arguments is to be substituted,
+ and in what form it is to be output.
+ For instance,
+
+\family typewriter
%f
-\family default
+\family default
specifies a
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
float
-\family default
- argument, so the statement
-\layout LyX-Code
+\family default
+ argument,
+ so the statement
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
printf("%f
-\backslash
+\backslash
t%f
-\backslash
-n", degrees, radians);
-\layout Standard
+\backslash
+n",
+ degrees,
+ radians);
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
causes the values of the two
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
float
-\family default
+\family default
variables
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
degrees
-\family default
+\family default
and
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
radians
-\family default
- to be printed, with a tab (
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ to be printed,
+ with a tab (
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
t
-\family default
+\family default
) between them.
-\layout Chapter
+\end_layout
-Types, Operators, and Expressions
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Chapter
+Types,
+ Operators,
+ and Expressions
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Variables and constants are the basic data units manipulated in a program.
- Declarations list the variables to be used, and state what type they have
- and perhaps what the initial values for them are.
+ Declarations list the variables to be used,
+ and state what type they have and perhaps what the initial values for them are.
Operators specify what is to be done to them.
Expressions combine variables and constants to produce new values.
- The type of a unit determines the set of values it can have and what operations
- are permissible for it.
+ The type of a unit determines the set of values it can have and what operations are permissible for it.
These building blocks are the subject of this chapter.
-\layout Section
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
Variable Names
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Though we didn't say it in Chapter
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \ref{cha:A-Tutorial-Introduction}
+\begin_inset CommandInset ref
+LatexCommand ref
+reference "cha:A-Tutorial-Introduction"
+nolink "false"
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-, there are some restrictions on variable names and symbolic constants.
- Names are composed of letters and digits; the first character must be a
- letter (the underscore,
+,
+ there are some restrictions on variable names and symbolic constants.
+ Names are composed of letters and digits;
+ the first character must be a letter (the underscore,
+
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
_
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-, counts as a letter -- it's often useful for improving the readability
- of long names).
- Don't begin variable names with an underscore, however, since functions
- beginning with _ are reserved for library and engine functions.
- Upper-case and lower-case are distinct, so x and X are two different names.
+,
+ counts as a letter – it's often useful for improving the readability of long names).
+ Don't begin variable names with an underscore,
+ however,
+ since functions beginning with _ are reserved for library and engine functions.
+ Upper-case and lower-case are distinct,
+ so x and X are two different names.
Traditional practice is to use lower-case or mixed case for variable names,
and all upper-case for
-\emph on
+\emph on
symbolic constants
-\emph default
-, also known as
-\emph on
+\emph default
+,
+ also known as
+\emph on
defines
-\emph default
+\emph default
.
- Keywords like if, else, integer, float, etc.
- are reserved -- you can't use them as variable names.
-\layout Section
+ Keywords like if,
+ else,
+ integer,
+ float,
+ etc.
+ are reserved – you can't use them as variable names.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
Constants
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
An integer constant like
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
5678
-\family default
+\family default
is an integer.
Floating-point constants contain a decimal point (
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
123.4
-\family default
+\family default
) or an exponent (
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
1e-2
-\family default
+\family default
) or both (
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
1.2e3
-\family default
+\family default
).
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-The value of an integer can be specified in octal (base 8, 0
+\begin_layout Standard
+The value of an integer can be specified in octal (base 8,
+ 0
\begin_inset Formula $\ldots$
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-7) or hexadecimal (base 16, 0
+7) or hexadecimal (base 16,
+ 0
\begin_inset Formula $\ldots$
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-F, hereafter called
+F,
+ hereafter called
\begin_inset Quotes eld
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
hex
\begin_inset Quotes erd
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
) instead of decimal.
A leading
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
0
-\family default
- (zero) on an integer constant means octal; a leading
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ (zero) on an integer constant means octal;
+ a leading
+\family typewriter
0x
-\family default
+\family default
or
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
0X
-\family default
+\family default
means hex.
- For example, decimal 31 can be written as
-\family typewriter
+ For example,
+ decimal 31 can be written as
+\family typewriter
037
-\family default
- in octal, or
-\family typewriter
-0x1f
-\family default
+\family default
+ in octal,
or
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
+0x1f
+\family default
+ or
+\family typewriter
0X1F
-\family default
+\family default
in hex.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-Certain characters can be represented in string constants by escape sequences
- like
-\family typewriter
+\begin_layout Standard
+Certain characters can be represented in string constants by escape sequences like
+\family typewriter
-\backslash
+\backslash
n
-\family default
- (newline); these sequences look like two characters, but represent only
- one.
- In addition, an arbitrary byte value can be represented by
-\layout LyX-Code
+\family default
+ (newline);
+ these sequences look like two characters,
+ but represent only one.
+ In addition,
+ an arbitrary byte value can be represented by
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
-\backslash
+\backslash
o
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
where
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
o
-\family default
+\family default
is one to three octal digits or by
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
-\backslash
+\backslash
xh
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
where
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
h
-\family default
+\family default
is one or more hex digits.
So we might write
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
"vtab =
-\backslash
+\backslash
013"
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-or, in hex,
-\layout LyX-Code
+\begin_layout Standard
+or,
+ in hex,
+
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
"vtab =
-\backslash
+\backslash
x0b"
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The complete set of escape sequences is found in Table
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \ref{cap:Escape-sequences}
+\begin_inset CommandInset ref
+LatexCommand ref
+reference "cap:Escape-sequences"
+nolink "false"
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
.
-\layout Standard
-
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
\begin_inset Float table
+placement document
+alignment document
wide false
-collapsed true
+sideways false
+status collapsed
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset space \hfill{}
+\end_inset
-\hfill
-
-\begin_inset Tabular
+\begin_inset Tabular
<lyxtabular version="3" rows="14" columns="2">
-<features>
-<column alignment="left" valignment="top" leftline="true" width="0pt">
-<column alignment="left" valignment="top" leftline="true" rightline="true" width="0pt">
-<row topline="true" bottomline="true">
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
+<features tabularvalignment="middle">
+<column alignment="left" valignment="top" width="0pt">
+<column alignment="left" valignment="top" width="0pt">
+<row>
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
Sequence
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
Description
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
a
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
Alert (bell) character
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
b
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
backspace
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
f
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
form feed
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
n
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
newline
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
r
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
carriage return
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
t
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
tab character
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\backslash
-\backslash
+\backslash
-\backslash
+\end_layout
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
backslash
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
?
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
question mark
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
'
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
single quote
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
"
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
double quote
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
ooo
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
octal number
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true">
+<row>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
xhh
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
hex number
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
-<row topline="true" bottomline="true">
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
+<row>
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
-
-\backslash
+\backslash
^
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
-<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
+<cell alignment="center" valignment="top" topline="true" bottomline="true" leftline="true" rightline="true" usebox="none">
\begin_inset Text
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
alternate character set (toggles)
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
</cell>
</row>
</lyxtabular>
-\end_inset
+\end_inset
-\hfill
-
-\layout Caption
+\begin_inset space \hfill{}
+\end_inset
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \label{cap:Escape-sequences}
+\end_layout
-\end_inset
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset Caption Standard
+
+\begin_layout Plain Layout
+\begin_inset CommandInset label
+LatexCommand label
+name "cap:Escape-sequences"
+
+\end_inset
Escape sequences
-\end_inset
+\end_layout
+
+\end_inset
-\layout Chapter
+\end_layout
-Control Constructs: Kneel Before Zod
-\layout Chapter
+\end_inset
-Arrays and Pointers: Pull Pin, Then Throw
-\bar under
+
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Chapter
+Control Constructs:
+ Kneel Before Zod
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Chapter
+Arrays and Pointers:
+ Pull Pin,
+ Then Throw
+\bar under
GRENADE
-\layout Chapter
+\end_layout
-Breaking Up The Program: Now Where Did I Put That?
-\layout Part
+\begin_layout Chapter
+Breaking Up The Program:
+ Now Where Did I Put That?
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Part
Object-Oriented Programming in Ruamoko
-\layout Part
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Part
Language Reference
-\layout Chapter
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Chapter
Types
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
This is currently just new stuff in
-\family typewriter
-\series bold
+\family typewriter
+\series bold
qfcc
-\family default
-\series default
+\family default
+\series default
.
-\layout Section
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
New Type Features
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsection
New Types
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
integer
-\family default
+\family default
32 bit signed integer
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
id
-\family default
+\family default
generic object pointer
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
Class
-\family default
+\family default
class object pointer
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
Protocol
-\family default
+\family default
protocol object pointer
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
Method
-\family default
+\family default
method pointer
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
SEL
-\family default
+\family default
selector
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
IMP
-\family default
+\family default
message implementation
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
id
-\family default
-,
-\family typewriter
-Class
-\family default
-,
-\family typewriter
-Protocol
-\family default
-,
-\family typewriter
-Method
-\family default
-,
-\family typewriter
-SEL
-\family default
- and
-\family typewriter
-IMP
-\family default
- are part of
-\family typewriter
-\series bold
-qfcc
-\family default
-\series default
-'s Objective-QC extensions.
-\layout Subsection
-
-Enumerators
-\layout Standard
-
-as per C
-\layout Subsection
-
-Structures
-\layout LyX-Code
-
-struct foo {
-\newline
- integer bar;
-\newline
- float baz;
-\newline
- void () func;
-\newline
-};
-\layout Standard
-
-Structures with no elements can be declared for making opaque types (particularl
-y useful for engine interface functions).
-\layout Subsection
-
-Arrays
-\layout LyX-Code
-
-integer [13] array;
-\layout Subsection
-
-Pointers
-\layout Standard
-
-Pointers are declared the same way as arrays, but with no number in the
+\family default
+,
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
+Class
+\family default
+,
+
+\family typewriter
+Protocol
+\family default
+,
+
+\family typewriter
+Method
+\family default
+,
+
+\family typewriter
+SEL
+\family default
+ and
+\family typewriter
+IMP
+\family default
+ are part of
+\family typewriter
+\series bold
+qfcc
+\family default
+\series default
+'s Objective-QC extensions.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Subsection
+Enumerators
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+as per C
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Subsection
+Structures
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+struct foo {
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+ integer bar;
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+ float baz;
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+ void () func;
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+};
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Structures with no elements can be declared for making opaque types (particularly useful for engine interface functions).
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Subsection
+Arrays
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+integer [13] array;
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Subsection
+Pointers
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+Pointers are declared the same way as arrays,
+ but with no number in the
+\family typewriter
[]
-\family default
+\family default
s.
- In fact, arrays are just pointers with limited (compile-time) bounds checking
- (constant indices).
-\layout Subsection
+ In fact,
+ arrays are just pointers with limited (compile-time) bounds checking (constant indices).
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsection
Complex types
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Complex types can be created by nesting type declarations within
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
()
-\family default
+\family default
s.
e.g.:
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
(.float) (string name) find_field;
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
declares a function (
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
find_field
-\family default
+\family default
) taking a string parameter and returning a float field `offset'.
Without the
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
()
-\family default
+\family default
s around the
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
.float
-\family default
-, the declaration would be a function field.
-\layout Subsection
+\family default
+,
+ the declaration would be a function field.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsection
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
typedef
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
By using
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
typedef
-\family default
+\family default
complex types can be given symbolic names.
e.g.:
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
struct foo_s {};
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
typedef foo_s [] foo_t;
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
creates type
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
foo_t
-\family default
+\family default
which is a pointer to the structure
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
foo_s
-\family default
+\family default
(which happens to be opaque).
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsection
Variable-argument functions
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-Typed parameters preceding the ellipsis are allowed, e.g.:
-\family typewriter
-void (string fmt, \SpecialChar \ldots{}
-) printf;
-\layout Standard
-
-More importantly, it is now possible to write vararg functions in QC.
+\begin_layout Standard
+Typed parameters preceding the ellipsis are allowed,
+ e.g.:
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
+void (string fmt,
+ \SpecialChar ldots
+) printf;
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+More importantly,
+ it is now possible to write vararg functions in QC.
+
+\family typewriter
@argc
-\family default
+\family default
gives the number of parameters passed through the ellipsis and
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
@argv
-\family default
+\family default
is an array of vectors representing the parameters passed through
-\family typewriter
-\SpecialChar \ldots{}
+\family typewriter
+\SpecialChar ldots
-\family default
+\family default
.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
-\series bold
-\emph on
-Warning: attempting to pass
-\family typewriter
+\series bold
+\emph on
+Warning:
+ attempting to pass
+\series default
+\emph default
+
+\family typewriter
+\series bold
+\emph on
@argv
-\family default
- to a non-engine function will not work.
+\family default
+\series default
+\emph default
+
+\series bold
+\emph on
+to a non-engine function will not work.
This is because of changes in how local variables are handled by the compiler.
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsection
Improved type checking
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-Function parameters and return types are are fully checked, including the
- number of parameters passed to a function.
- Functions with different return types and/or different parameter types
- or counts are distinct types and mixing them up will cause a type mismatch
- error.
+\begin_layout Standard
+Function parameters and return types are are fully checked,
+ including the number of parameters passed to a function.
+ Functions with different return types and/or different parameter types or counts are distinct types and mixing them up will cause a type mismatch error.
Similar for pointers to various types.
-\layout Section
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Chapter
Variables
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
Local variables
-\layout Subsubsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsubsection
Initialization
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Local variables of basic types can now be initialized when declared.
e,g,
-\layout Verse
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Verse
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
local integer elite = 31337;
-\layout Subsubsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsubsection
Unused variables
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Local variables that are declared but not used produce a warning.
-\layout Subsubsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsubsection
Uninitialized variables
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-Checks are done to ensure that local variables have been initialized before
- being used.
- However, these checks are not perfect and false positives are very likely
- in complex code.
- Occurrences of false negatives are not known, but the possibility of their
- existence remains and any examples of false negatives should be reported
- as bugs.
-\layout Subsection
+\begin_layout Standard
+Checks are done to ensure that local variables have been initialized before being used.
+ However,
+ these checks are not perfect and false positives are very likely in complex code.
+ Occurrences of false negatives are not known,
+ but the possibility of their existence remains and any examples of false negatives should be reported as bugs.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
Complex global variables
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Global array variables can be initialized using
-\family typewriter
-= {
-\emph on
+\family typewriter
+= {
+\family default
+
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
element-list
-\emph default
- };
-\family default
+\family default
+\emph default
+
+\family typewriter
+};
+\family default
.
Element lists may be nested using
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
{}
-\family default
+\family default
.
- Structures cannot currently be initialized, but this is a FIXME :)
-\layout Subsection
+ Structures cannot currently be initialized,
+ but this is a FIXME :)
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
Magic variables
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
@self
-\family default
+\family default
Automagically-declared entity variable the engine will use for
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
touch
-\family default
+\family default
and
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
think
-\family default
+\family default
functions.
This allows
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
self
-\family default
+\family default
to be used as the object hidden parameter in methods.
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
@this
-\family default
+\family default
Automagically-declared
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
id
-\family default
- field that the engine expects to point to the object associated with the
- entity.
- The engine will use this field, if it exists, to set the
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ field that the engine expects to point to the object associated with the entity.
+ The engine will use this field,
+ if it exists,
+ to set the
+\family typewriter
self
-\family default
+\family default
parameter to
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
touch
-\family default
+\family default
and
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
think
-\family default
- methods (the engine assumes it's calling a method rather than a function
- if the @this field is used.
-\layout Labeling
+\family default
+ methods (the engine assumes it's calling a method rather than a function if the @this field is used.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
@argc
-\family default
+\family default
Number of parameters passed through
-\family typewriter
-\SpecialChar \ldots{}
+\family typewriter
+\SpecialChar ldots
-\family default
+\family default
in vararg functions.
Not valid elsewhere.
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
@argv
-\family default
+\family default
Array of vectors representing the parameters passed through
-\family typewriter
-\SpecialChar \ldots{}
+\family typewriter
+\SpecialChar ldots
-\family default
+\family default
in vararg functions.
Not valid elsewhere.
-\layout Section
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Chapter
Code constructs
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
break
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
break
-\family default
+\family default
statement can be used to leave a loop (
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
while
-\family default
-,
-\family typewriter
-do
-\family default
- \SpecialChar \ldots{}
+\family default
+,
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
+do
+\family default
+ \SpecialChar ldots
+
+\family typewriter
while
-\family default
-, or
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+,
+ or
+\family typewriter
for
-\family default
+\family default
) prematurely.
The
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
break
-\family default
+\family default
statement is also used to leave a
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
switch
-\family default
+\family default
statement.
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
continue
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
continue
-\family default
+\family default
statement is used to jump to the beginning of a loop.
In
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
for
-\family default
- loops, the test and post expressions are evaluated before continuing with
- the loop.
-\layout Subsection
+\family default
+ loops,
+ the test and post expressions are evaluated before continuing with the loop.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
for
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
for
-\family default
+\family default
loop is:
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
for (
-\emph on
+\emph on
initialization-expression
-\emph default
-;
-\emph on
+\emph default
+;
+
+\emph on
test-expression
-\emph default
-;
-\emph on
+\emph default
+;
+
+\emph on
post-expression
-\emph default
+\emph default
)
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\emph on
+ statement
+\end_layout
-\emph on
- statement
-\layout Standard
-
+\begin_layout Standard
and is equivalent to
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
-\emph on
+\emph on
initialization expression
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
while (
-\emph on
+\emph on
test expression
-\emph default
+\emph default
) {
-\layout LyX-Code
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\emph on
+ statement
+\end_layout
-\emph on
- statement
-\layout LyX-Code
-
-
-\emph on
- post expression
-\layout LyX-Code
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
+
+\emph on
+ post expression
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
}
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
switch
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
The
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
switch
-\family default
- statement is used to select between multiple code blocks based on the value
- of an expression.
-\layout LyX-Code
+\family default
+ statement is used to select between multiple code blocks based on the value of an expression.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout LyX-Code
switch (
-\emph on
+\emph on
test expression
-\emph default
+\emph default
) {
-\newline
- case
-\emph on
- value
-\emph default
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
+
+ case
+\emph on
+value
+\emph default
:
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-\emph on
- optional statements
-\newline
+
+\emph on
+ optional statements
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-\emph default
- case
-\emph on
- value
-\emph default
+
+\emph default
+ case
+\emph on
+value
+\emph default
:
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-\emph on
- optional statements
-\emph default
+
+\emph on
+ optional statements
+\emph default
+
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-\newline
default:
-\newline
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-\emph on
- optional statements
-\emph default
+
+\emph on
+ optional statements
+\emph default
+
+\begin_inset Newline newline
+\end_inset
-\newline
}
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Standard
Code execution starts at the selected
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
case
-\family default
+\family default
and continues on to the end of the switch block.
Following
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
case
-\family default
+\family default
s do
-\emph on
+\emph on
not
-\emph default
+\emph default
affect code execution.
- If this behavior is not desired, as is usual, then a
-\family typewriter
+ If this behavior is not desired,
+ as is usual,
+ then a
+\family typewriter
break
-\family default
+\family default
statement is required to cause the code to jump to the end of the
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
switch
-\family default
-, skipping any intervening code.
- That is, just like C.
-\layout Subsubsection
+\family default
+,
+ skipping any intervening code.
+ That is,
+ just like C.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsubsection
-\family typewriter
-\emph on
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
test expression
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-The test expression may result in a float, string or integer value.
-\layout Subsubsection
+\begin_layout Standard
+The test expression may result in a float,
+ string or integer value.
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsubsection
-\family typewriter
-case
-\emph on
+\family typewriter
+case
+\family default
+
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
value
-\layout Verse
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Verse
-\family typewriter
-case
-\emph on
+\family typewriter
+case
+\family default
+
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
value
-\emph default
+\emph default
:
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-The case value may be of any constant type consistent with the test expression
- of the
-\family typewriter
+\begin_layout Standard
+The case value may be of any constant type consistent with the test expression of the
+\family typewriter
switch
-\family default
+\family default
.
-\layout Subsubsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsubsection
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
default
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
-If specified, this is where execution will go when no
-\family typewriter
+\begin_layout Standard
+If specified,
+ this is where execution will go when no
+\family typewriter
case
-\family default
+\family default
has been selected by the test expression.
- If not specified, and no
-\family typewriter
+ If not specified,
+ and no
+\family typewriter
case
-\family default
- has been selected by the test expression, the
-\family typewriter
+\family default
+ has been selected by the test expression,
+ the
+\family typewriter
switch
-\family default
+\family default
does not execute any code within the block.
-\layout Section
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Section
Expressions
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsection
Binary
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
+\family typewriter
+<<
+\begin_inset space ~
+\end_inset
-\family typewriter
-<<\SpecialChar ~
>>
-\family default
+\family default
bit shift left and right
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
^
-\family default
+\family default
bitwise exclusive or
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
%
-\family default
+\family default
modulus
-\layout Subsubsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsubsection
Assignment
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
-\emph on
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
op
-\emph default
-=
-\family default
-equivalent to
-\family typewriter
-a = a
-\emph on
-op
-\emph default
+\emph default
+=
+\family default
+ equivalent to
+\family typewriter
+a = a
+\family default
+
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
+op
+\family default
+\emph default
+
+\family typewriter
b
-\family default
+\family default
.
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsection
Unary
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
~
-\family default
+\family default
bitwise not
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
&
-\family default
+\family default
address
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
+\family typewriter
++
-\emph on
+\emph on
e
-\emph default
-\SpecialChar ~
+\emph default
+
+\begin_inset space ~
+\end_inset
+
--
-\emph on
+\emph on
e
-\family default
-\emph default
+\family default
+\emph default
pre-increment and decrement
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
-\emph on
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
e
-\emph default
-++\SpecialChar ~
+\emph default
+++
+\begin_inset space ~
+\end_inset
-\emph on
+
+\emph on
e
-\emph default
+\emph default
--
-\family default
+\family default
post-increment and decrement
-\layout Subsection
+\end_layout
+\begin_layout Subsection
Other
-\layout Labeling
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-\family typewriter
-\emph on
-type\SpecialChar ~
-
-\emph default
-(
-\emph on
-expr
-\emph default
-)
-\family default
- cast expression.
- Works only for converting between integer and float types and between pointer
- types.
-\layout Labeling
-\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-
-\family typewriter
-\emph on
-expr
-\emph default
-[
-\emph on
-expr
-\emph default
-]
-\family default
-array indexing.
-\layout Labeling
-\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-
-\family typewriter
-\emph on
-expr
-\emph default
-?
-\emph on
-expr
-\emph default
-:
-\emph on
-expr
-\family default
-\emph default
-C's trinary expression
-\layout Labeling
-\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-
-\family typewriter
-[
-\emph on
-expr
-\emph default
-\SpecialChar ~
-
-\emph on
-exprs
-\emph default
-]
-\family default
- Objective-QC message
-\layout Labeling
-\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-
-\family typewriter
-@selector(
-\emph on
-exprs
-\emph default
-)
-\family default
- Objective-QC selector expression
-\layout Labeling
-\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-
-\family typewriter
-@protocol(
-\emph on
-name
-\emph default
-)
-\family default
- Objective-QC protocol expression
-\layout Labeling
-\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
-
-
-\family typewriter
-@encode(
-\emph on
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
type
-\emph default
+\begin_inset space ~
+\end_inset
+
+
+\emph default
+(
+\emph on
+expr
+\emph default
)
-\family default
- Objective-QC type encoding expression
-\layout Labeling
+\family default
+ cast expression.
+ Works only for converting between integer and float types and between pointer types.
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
+expr
+\emph default
+[
+\emph on
+expr
+\emph default
+]
+\family default
+ array indexing.
+\end_layout
-\family typewriter
+\begin_layout Labeling
+\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
+
+\family typewriter
+\emph on
+expr
+\emph default
+?
+\emph on
+expr
+\emph default
+:
+\emph on
+expr
+\family default
+\emph default
+ C's trinary expression
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
+\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
+
+\family typewriter
+[
+\emph on
+expr
+\emph default
+
+\begin_inset space ~
+\end_inset
+
+
+\emph on
+exprs
+\emph default
+]
+\family default
+ Objective-QC message
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
+\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
+
+\family typewriter
+@selector(
+\emph on
+exprs
+\emph default
+)
+\family default
+ Objective-QC selector expression
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
+\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
+
+\family typewriter
+@protocol(
+\emph on
+name
+\emph default
+)
+\family default
+ Objective-QC protocol expression
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
+\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
+
+\family typewriter
+@encode(
+\emph on
+type
+\emph default
+)
+\family default
+ Objective-QC type encoding expression
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Labeling
+\labelwidthstring 00.00.0000
+
+\family typewriter
@
-\emph on
+\emph on
string
-\family default
-\emph default
+\family default
+\emph default
Objective-QC string object.
Currently identical to a normal QC string.
-\layout Standard
+\end_layout
+
+\begin_layout Standard
+\begin_inset CommandInset index_print
+LatexCommand printindex
+type "idx"
+name "Index"
+literal "true"
+
+\end_inset
-\begin_inset LatexCommand \printindex{}
+\end_layout
-\end_inset
-
-
-\the_end
+\end_body
+\end_document