Working with Objects
********************

Objective-C and GNUstep provide a rich object allocation and memory management framework.  Objective-C affords independent memory allocation and initialization steps for objects, and GNUstep supports three alternative schemes for memory management.

Initializing and Allocating Objects
===================================

Unlike most object-oriented languages, Objective-C exposes memory allocation for objects and initialization as two separate steps.  In particular, every class provides an '+alloc' method for creating blank new instances. However, initialization is carried out by an instance method, not a class method.  By convention, the default initialization method is '-init'. The general procedure for obtaining a newly initialized object is thus:

     id newObj = [[SomeClass alloc] init];

Here, the call to alloc returns an uninitialized instance, on which init is then invoked.  (Actually, alloc does set all instance variable memory to 0, and it initializes the special isa variable mentioned earlier which points to the object's class, allowing it to respond to messages.)  The alloc and init calls may be collapsed for convenience into a single call:

     id newObj = [SomeClass new];

The default implementation of new simply calls alloc and init as above, however other actions are possible.  For example, new could be overridden to reuse an existing object and just call init on it (skipping the alloc step).  (Technically this kind of instantiation management can be done inside init as well -- it can deallocate the receiving object and return another one in its place. However this practice is not recommended; the new method should be used for this instead since it avoids unnecessary memory allocation for instances that are not used.)

Initialization with Arguments
-----------------------------

In many cases you want to initialize an object with some specific information. For example a Point object might need to be given an x, y position. In this case the class may define additional initializers, such as:

     id pt = [[Point alloc] initWithX: 1.5 Y: 2.0];

Again, a new method may be defined, though sometimes the word ``new'' is not used in the name:

     id pt = [Point newWithX: 1.5 Y: 2.0];
       // alternative
     id pt = [Point pointAtX: 1.5 Y: 2.0];

In general the convention in Objective-C is to name initializers in a way that is intuitive for their classes.  Initialization is covered in more detail in Instance Initialization.  Finally, it is acceptable for an init... method to return nil at times when insufficient memory is available or it is passed an invalid argument; for example the argument to the NSString method initWithContentsOfFile: may be an erroneous file name.

Memory Allocation and Zones
---------------------------

Memory allocation for objects in GNUstep supports the ability to specify that memory is to be taken from a particular region of addressable memory.  In the days that computer RAM was relatively limited, it was important to be able to ensure that parts of a large application that needed to interact with one another could be held in working memory at the same time, rather than swapping back and forth from disk.  This could be done by specifying that particular objects were to be allocated from a particular region of memory, rather than scattered across all of memory at the whim of the operating system.  The OS would then keep these objects in memory at one time, and swap them out at the same time, perhaps to make way for a separate portion of the application that operated mostly independently.  (Think of a word processor that keeps structures for postscript generation for printing separate from those for managing widgets in the on-screen editor.)

With the growth of computer RAM and the increasing sophistication of memory management by operating systems, it is not as important these days to control the regions where memory is allocated from, however it may be of use in certain situations.  For example, you may wish to save time by allocating memory in large chunks, then cutting off pieces yourself for object allocation.  If you know you are going to be allocating large numbers of objects of a certain size, it may pay to create a zone that allocates memory in multiples of this size.  The GNUstep/Objective-C mechanisms supporting memory allocation are therefore described here.

The fundamental structure describing a region of memory in GNUstep is called a Zone, and it is represented by the NSZone struct.  All NSObject methods dealing with the allocation of memory optionally take an NSZone argument specifying the Zone to get the memory from.  For example, in addition to the fundamental alloc method described above, there is the allocWithZone: method:

     + (id) alloc;
     + (id) allocWithZone: (NSZone*)zone;

Both methods will allocate memory to hold an object, however the first one automatically takes the memory from a default Zone (which is returned by the NSDefaultMallocZone() function).  When it is necessary to group objects in the same area of memory, or allocate in chunks - perhaps for performance reasons, you may create a Zone from where you would allocate those objects by using the NSCreateZone function.  This will minimise the paging required by your application when accessing those objects frequently. In all normal use however, you should confine yourself to the default zone.

Low level memory allocation is performed by the NSAllocateObject() function.  This is rarely used but available when you require more advanced control or performance. This function is called by [NSObject +allocWithZone:].  However, if you call NSAllocateObject() directly to create an instance of a class you did not write, you may break some functionality of that class, such as caching of frequently used objects.

Other NSObject methods besides alloc that may optionally take Zones include -copy and -mutableCopy.  For 95% of cases you will probably not need to worry about Zones at all; unless performance is critical, you can just use the methods without zone arguments, that take the default zone.

With the ObjC-2 (NG) setup,  the use of zones is obsoleted:  the runtime library performs the actual allocation of objects and ignores the zone information.

Memory Deallocation
-------------------

Objects should be deallocated from memory when they are no longer needed. While there are several alternative schemes for managing this process (see next section), they all eventually resort to calling the NSObject method -dealloc, which is more or less the opposite of -alloc. It returns the memory occupied by the object to the Zone from which it was originally allocated.  The NSObject implementation of the method deallocates only instance variables.  Additional allocated, unshared memory used by the object must be deallocated separately.  Other entities that depend solely on the deallocated receiver, including complete objects, must also be deallocated separately.  Usually this is done by subclasses overriding -dealloc (see Instance Deallocation).

As with alloc, the underlying implementation utilizes a function (NSDeallocateObject()) that can be used by your code if you know what you are doing.

With the ObjC-2 (NG) setup,  the use of zones is obsoleted:  the runtime library performs the freeing of memory used by objects.

Memory Management
=================

In an object-oriented environment, ensuring that all memory is freed when it is no longer needed can be a challenge.  To assist in this regard, there are three alternative forms of memory management available in Objective-C:

Basic strategies
----------------

Explicit
........

You allocate objects using alloc, copy etc, and deallocate them when you have finished with them (using dealloc). This gives you complete control over memory management, and is highly efficient, but error prone.

This is the standard route to memory management taken in C and C++ programs. As in standard C when using malloc, or in C++ when using new and delete, you need to keep track of every object created through an alloc call and destroy it by use of dealloc when it is no longer needed.  You must make sure to no longer reference deallocated objects; although messaging them will not cause a segmentation fault as in C/C++, it will still lead to your program behaving in unintended ways.

This approach is generally not recommended since the Retain/Release style of memory management is significantly less leak-prone while still being quite efficient.

Retain count
............

You use the OpenStep retain/release mechanism, along with autorelease pools which provide a degree of automated memory management.  This gives a good degree of control over memory management, but requires some care in following simple rules.  It's pretty efficient.

The standard OpenStep system of memory management employs retain counts. When an object is created, it has a retain count of 1.  When an object is retained, the retain count is incremented.  When it is released the retain count is decremented, and when the retain count goes to zero the object gets deallocated.

       Coin	*c = [[Coin alloc] initWithValue: 10];

         // Put coin in pouch,
       [c retain];	// Calls 'retain' method (retain count now 2)
         // Remove coin from pouch
       [c release];	// Calls 'release' method (retain count now 1)
         // Drop in bottomless well
       [c release];	// Calls 'release' ... (retain count 0) then 'dealloc'

Retain count is best understood using the concept of ownership.  When we retain an object we own it and are responsible for releasing it again. When nobody owns an object (its retain count is zero) it is deallocated. The retain count of an object is the number of places which own the object and have therefore undertaken to release it when they have finished with it.

One way of thinking about the initial retain count of 1 on the object is that a call to alloc (or copy) implicitly calls retain as well.  There are a couple of default conventions about how retain and release are to be used in practice.

  * If a block of code causes an object to be allocated, it ``owns'' this object and is responsible for releasing it.  If a block of code merely receives a created object from elsewhere, it is not responsible for releasing it.

  * More generally, the total number of retains in a block should be matched by an equal number of releases.

Thus, a typical usage pattern is:

       NSString *msg = [[NSString alloc] initWithString: @"Test message."];
       NSLog(msg);
         // we created msg with alloc -- release it
       [msg release];

Retain and release must also be used for instance variables that are objects:

     - (void) setFoo: (FooClass *newFoo)
     {
         // first, assert reference to newFoo
       [newFoo retain];
         // now release reference to foo (do second since maybe newFoo == foo)
       [foo release];
         // finally make the new assignment; old foo was released and may
         // be destroyed if retain count has reached 0
       foo = newFoo;
     }

To write portable code (which will work with both the classic retain counting mechanism and with ARC) you should use the macros RETAIN(expr) and RELEASE(expr) along with the DESTROY(lvalue) and ASSIGN(lvalue, expr) macros.

Because of this retain/release management, it is safest to use accessor methods to set variables even within a class:

     - (void) resetFoo
     {
       FooClass *foo = [[FooClass alloc] init];
       [self setFoo: foo];
         // since -setFoo just retained, we can and should
         // undo the retain done by alloc
       [foo release];
     }

Exceptions

In practice, the extra method call overhead should be avoided in performance critical areas and the instance variable should be set directly.  However in all other cases it has proven less error-prone in practice to consistently use the accessor.

There are certain situations in which the rule of having retains and releases be equal in a block should be violated.  For example, the standard implementation of a container class retains each object that is added to it, and releases it when it is removed, in a separate method.  In general you need to be careful in these cases that retains and releases match.

Automated Reference Counts (ARC)
................................

Only available when using the ObjC-2 (NG) environment rather than classic Objective-C.  In this case the compiler generates code to use the retain count and autorelease pools.  The use of ARC can be turned on/off for individual files.

The automation of retain and release makes for much more reliable memory management but can still be broken by failure to annotate methods and functions which do anything unusual, as well as failing to handle certain patterns of using such as retain cycles.

Despite the advantages of ARC, this is only available with one compiler/runtime and code dependent on ARC is therefore inherently non-portable. To make portable code which is more robust in the long run, it is therefore recommended that you use the portability macros (described later) to produce code which will work with both the basic OpenStep style manual retain/release and with ARC..

Autorelease Pools
-----------------

One important case where the retain/release system has difficulties is when an object needs to be transferred or handed off to another.  You don't want to retain the transferred object in the transferring code, but neither do you want the object to be destroyed before the hand-off can take place.  The OpenStep/GNUstep solution to this is the autorelease pool.  An autorelease pool is a special mechanism that will retain objects it is given for a limited time -- always enough for a transfer to take place.  This mechanism is accessed by calling autorelease on an object instead of release.  Autorelease first adds the object to the active autorelease pool, which retains it, then sends a release to the object. At some point later on (when the pool is destroyed), the pool will send the object a second release message, but by this time the object will presumably either have been retained by some other code, or is no longer needed and can thus be deallocated.  For example:

     - (NSString *) getStatus
     {
       NSString *status =
         [[NSString alloc] initWithFormat: "Count is %d", [self getCount]];
        // set to be released sometime in the future
       [status autorelease];
       return status;
     }

Any block of code that calls -getStatus can also forego retaining the return value if it just needs to use it locally.  If the return value is to be stored and used later on however, it should be retained:

       ...
       NSString *status = [foo getStatus];
         // 'status' is still being retained by the autorelease pool
       NSLog(status);
       return;
         // status will be released automatically later

       ...
       currentStatus = [foo getStatus];
         // currentStatus is an instance variable; we do not want its value
         // to be destroyed when the autorelease pool cleans up, so we
         // retain it ourselves
       [currentStatus retain];

To write portable code (for both classic retain counting and ARC) you should use the AUTORELEASE(expr) macro.

Convenience Constructors

A special case of object transfer occurs when a convenience constructor is called (instead of alloc followed by init) to create an object. (Convenience constructors are class methods that create a new instance and do not start with ``new''.)  In this case, since the convenience method is the one calling alloc, it is responsible for releasing it, and it does so by calling autorelease before returning.  Thus, if you receive an object created by any convenience method, it is autoreleased, so you don't need to release it if you are just using it temporarily, and you DO need to retain it if you want to hold onto it for a while.

     - (NSString *) getStatus
     {
         NSString *status =
             [NSString stringWithFormat: "Count is %d", [self getCount]];
         // 'status' has been autoreleased already
         return status;
     }

Pool Management

An autorelease pool is created automatically if you are using the GNUstep GUI classes, however if you are just using the GNUstep Base classes for a non-graphical application, you must create and release autorelease pools yourself:

       NSAutoreleasePool *pool = [[NSAutoreleasePool alloc] init];

Once a pool has been created, any autorelease calls will automatically find it.  To close out a pool, releasing all of its objects, simply release the pool itself:

       [pool release];

To achieve finer control over autorelease behaviour you may also create additional pools and release them in a nested manner.  Calls to autorelease will always use the most recently created pool.

Finally, note that autorelease calls are significantly slower than plain release.  Therefore you should only use them when they are necessary.

The best way to manage autorelease pools is using macros which will work both for the classic system or when using ARC.  The ENTER_POOL macro begins a block in which a new pool handles autoreleases and the LEAVE_POOL macro ends that block and destroys the autorelease pool.

Avoiding Retain Cycles
----------------------

One difficulty that sometimes occurs with the retain/release system is that cycles can arise in which, essentially, Object A has retained Object B, and Object B has also retained Object A.  In this situation, neither A nor B will ever be deallocated, even if they become completely disconnected from the rest of the program.  In practice this type of situation may involve more than two objects and multiple retain links.  The only way to avoid such cycles is to be careful with your designs.  If you notice a situation where a retain cycle could arise, remove at least one of the links in the chain, but not in such a way that references to deallocated objects might be mistakenly used.

To help solve the problem of retain cycles you can use weak references to break a cycle.  The runtime library provides functions to handle weak references so that you can safely check to see whether the reference is to an object that still exists or not.  To manage that the objc_storeWeak() function is used whenever assigning a value to the variable (instead of retaining the value), and the objc_loadWeak() function is used to retrieve the value from the variable ... the retrieved value will be nil if the object has been deallocated.  With the ObjC-2 (Next Generation) environment you can use the keyword `weak' to tell the compiler to automatically insert calls to those runtime functions whenever a value is written to or read from the variable. NB. weak references are relatively inefficient since each time objc_loadWeak() is called it both retains and autorelease the referenced value so that it will continue to exist for long enough for your code to work with it.

Methods, Conventions, and Macros
--------------------------------

retain/release related methods
..............................

The following summarizes the retain/release-related methods:

Method   Description
-retain
increases the retain count of an object by 1
-release
decreases the retain count of an object by 1
-autorelease
decreases the retain count of an object by 1 at some stage in the future
+alloc and +allocWithZone:
allocates memory for an object, and returns it with retain count of 1
-copy, -mutableCopy, copyWithZone: and -mutableCopyWithZone:
makes a copy of an object, and returns it with retain count of 1
-init and any method whose name begins with init
initialises the receiver, returning the retain count unchanged.
-init has had no effect on the retain count.
-new and any method whose name begins with new
allocates memory for an object, initialises it, and returns the result.
-dealloc
deallocates object immediately (regardless of value of retain count)
convenience constructors
allocate memory for an object, and returns it in an autoreleased state
(retain=1, but will be released automatically at some stage in the future).
These constructors are class methods whose name generally begins with the
name of the class (initial letter converted to lowercase).

retain/release related conventions
..................................

The following are the main conventions you need to remember:

  * If a unit of code allocates, retains, or copies an object, the same unit, loosely speaking, is responsible for releasing or autoreleasing it at some future point.  It is best to balance retains and releases within each individual block of code.

  * If you receive an object, it should remain valid until the object which provided it is sent another message or until the autorelease pool which was in use at the point when you received it is emptied.  So you can usually expect it to remain valid for the rest of the current method call and can even return it as the result of the method. If you need to store it away for future use (e.g. as an instance variable, or to use after emptying/destroying an autorelease pool, or to be used after sending another message to the object's owner), you must retain it.

  * The retain counts mentioned are guidelines only ... more sophisticated classes often perform caching and other tricks, so that +alloc methods may retain an instance from a cache and return it, and -init methods may release their receiver and return a different object (possibly obtained by retaining a cached object).  In these cases, the retain counts of the returned objects will obviously differ from the simple examples, but the ownership rules (how you should use the returned values) remain the same.

retain/release related macros
.............................

Macro   Functionality

RETAIN(foo);
[foo retain];

RELEASE(foo);
[foo release];

AUTORELEASE(foo);
[foo autorelease];

ASSIGN(foo, bar);
id tmp = [bar retain]; [foo release]; foo = tmp;

ASSIGNCOPY(foo, bar);
id tmp = [bar copy]; [foo release]; foo = tmp;

ASSIGNMUTABLECOPY(foo, bar);
id tmp = [bar mutableCopy]; [foo release]; foo = tmp;

DESTROY(foo);
[foo release]; foo = nil;

ENTER_POOL
Like @autoreleasepool this introduces a code block with a manually created autorelease pool.

LEAVE_POOL
This ends a block created by an ENTER_POOL destroying the autorelease pool created at the start of the block

DEALLOC
[super dealloc];

IF_NO_ARC(...)
Code to be compiled only if ARC is not in use

In the assignment ``convenience'' macros, appropriate nil checks are made so that no retain/release messages are sent to nil.

Leak Checking
-------------

Consider a simple case of leaked objects in a program a.m built with the asan=yes make option.  The code looks like this:

     #import <Foundation/Foundation.h>

     int
     main(void)
     {
       id obj;

       obj = [[NSString alloc] initWithString: @"hello"];
       obj = [[NSArray alloc] initWithObjects: &obj count: 1];

       return 0;
     }

The program creates an NSString and then creates an NSArray containing that string, before exiting without releasing either, so both are leaked.

The leak sanitizer log on program exist looked like this:

     =================================================================
     ==411363==ERROR: LeakSanitizer: detected memory leaks

     Direct leak of 28 byte(s) in 1 object(s) allocated from:
         #0 0x... in calloc (/home/user/a+0x...)
         #1 0x... in allocate_class libobjc2/gc_none.c:19:3
         #2 0x... in class_createInstance libobjc2/runtime.c:361:11
         #3 0x... in NSAllocateObject Source/NSObject.m:800:14
         #4 0x... in _i_GSPlaceholderArray__initWithObjects_count_
           Source/GSArray.m:1257:14
         #5 0x... in main /home/user/a.m:9:9
         #6 0x... in __libc_start_call_main
           libc_start_call_main.h:58:16
         #7 0x... in __libc_start_main libc-start.c:360:3
         #8 0x... in _start (/home/user/obj/a+0x...)

This is just the first part, giving the stack trace of a direct leak (memory with nothing pointing to it): occurring at /home/user/a.m line 9 column 9. Clearly this is telling us that the array was leaked.

     Indirect leak of 42 byte(s) in 1 object(s) allocated from:
         #0 0x... in calloc (/home/user/obj/a+0x...)
         #1 0x... in allocate_class libobjc2/gc_none.c:19:3
         #2 0x... in class_createInstance libobjc2/runtime.c:361:11
         #3 0x... in NSAllocateObject Source/NSObject.m:800:14
         #4 0x... in newUInline Source/GSString.m:755:5
         #5 0x... in _i_GSPlaceholderString__initWithString_
           Source/GSString.m:1727:19
         #6 0x... in main /home/user/a.m:8:9
         #7 0x... in __libc_start_call_main
           libc_start_call_main.h:58:16
         #8 0x... in __libc_start_main c-start.c:360:3
         #9 0x... in _start (/home/user/obj/a+0x...)

This second part of the report is an indirect leak (because it is memory which is pointed to by the leaked array).  It's the NSString object created at /home/user/a.m line 8 column 9.

     Indirect leak of 8 byte(s) in 1 object(s) allocated from:
         #0 0x... in malloc (/home/user/obj/a+0x...)
         #1 0x... in default_malloc Source/NSZone.m:164:9
         #2 0x... in NSZoneMalloc Source/NSZone.m:1802:10
         #3 0x... in _i_GSArray__initWithObjects_count_
           Source/GSArray.m:186:25
         #4 0x... in _i_GSPlaceholderArray__initWithObjects_count_
           Source/GSArray.m:1268:10
         #5 0x... in main /home/user/a.m:9:9
         #6 0x... in __libc_start_call_main
           libc_start_call_main.h:58:16
         #7 0x... in __libc_start_main libc-start.c:360:3
         #8 0x... in _start (/home/user/obj/a+0x...)

This third part is also an indirect leak ... it's the backing store allocated to hold the object in the array, so fixing the leak of the array object should also fix this (since the array should free its backing store when it is done with it).

     SUMMARY: AddressSanitizer: 78 byte(s) leaked in 3 allocation(s).

The final part of the leak report is the summary.  In a big leak report you can quickly look to the end of the report to get an idea of the severity of leaks in your program.

In this trivial example it is easy to see, from the stack traces, exactly where the problems lie. In a more realistic situation the leak sanitizer tells you exactly where leaked memory was allocated, but it can still be very had to tell why that memory was not deallocated later ... a leaked object may have been retained, autoreleased and released multiple times during the life of the program as it is passed around between different sections of code and temporarily held in different data structures.

tracking leaked objects
.......................

If the leak sanitizer has detected a leak, but you can't figure out why the leak occurred from simple source code inspection,  the gnustep-base library can help you.

The GNUstepBase/NSObject+GNUstepBase.h header contains the -trackOwnership method for tracking object lifecycles.  Immediately after the leaked object is allocated you can add code to send it the trackOwnership message, and a stack trace will be logged every time that object is retained, or released (or deallocated), allowing you to see what happened to it from the start of its life to the point where the program exited.

     #import <Foundation/Foundation.h>
     #import <GNUstepBase/NSObject+GNUstepBase.h>

     @interface Leaked : NSObject
     @end
     @implementation Leaked
     @end

     @interface ItemHolder : NSObject
     {
       NSObject	*i;
     }
     + (ItemHolder*) holderFor: (NSObject*)anItem;
     - (NSObject*) item;
     @end

     @implementation	ItemHolder
     + (ItemHolder*) holderFor: (NSObject*)anItem
     {
       ItemHolder	*h = [self new];
       ASSIGN(h->i, anItem);
       return AUTORELEASE(h);
     }
     - (NSObject*) item
     {
       return i;
     }
     @end

     int
     main(void)
     {
       ENTER_POOL
       NSObject	*leaked = [Leaked new];

       [leaked trackOwnership];
       [NSArray arrayWithObject: [ItemHolder holderFor: leaked]];
       DESTROY(leaked);
       LEAVE_POOL
       return 0;
     }

In this slightly more realistic example, the leaked instance of a new class called Leaked is explicitly destroyed, and the code is inside an autorelease pool so the cause of the leak is a little less obvious.

     Tracking ownership started for instance 0x... at (
      "... _i_NSObject_GSCleanUp_trackOwnership
       Source/Additions/NSObject+GNUstepBase.m: 827",
      "(./obj/a: 0x...) main  /home/user/a.m: 36",
      "(/libc.so.6: 0x...) __libc_start_call_main libc-start.c: 74",
      "(libc.so.6: 0x...) call_init  libc-start.c: 128",
      "(./obj/a: 0x...) _start  (null): 0").

     Tracking ownership -[0x50200008e858 retain] 1->2 at (
      "(./obj/a: 0x...) _c_ItemHolder__holderFor_  /a.m: 21",
      "(./obj/a: 0x...) main  /a.m: 37",
      "(libc.so.6: 0x...) __libc_start_call_main  libc-start.c: 74",
      "(libc.so.6: 0x...) call_init  libc-start.c: 128",
      "(./obj/a: 0x...) _start  (null): 0").

     Tracking ownership -[0x50200008e858 release] 2->1 at (
      "(./obj/a: 0x...) main  /a.m: 39",
      "(libc.so.6: 0x...) __libc_start_call_main  libc-start.c: 74",
      "(libc.so.6: 0x...) call_init  libc-start.c: 128",
      "(./obj/a: 0x...) _start  (null): 0").

     Tracking ownership -[0x50200008e858 dealloc] not called by exit.

The trace for the leaked object is edited to leave out some file path details etc for clarity, so you can see there are four logs; start of tracking, a retain, a release, and the end of the program.

In each log the address of the traced object is shown (so if you are tracking more than one object you can tell which logs are which) along with the operation being traced.

For the retain log, the address and operation information is followed by 1->2 indicating that the retain count of the object changed from 1 to 2, and from the stack trace we can see that the retain was done by the +holderFor: method.

For the release log, the address and operation information is followed by 2->1 indicating that the retain count of the object changed from 1 to 1, and from the stack trace we can see that the release was done at line 39 in main.m (the -release produced by the DESTROY() macro).

From this it's quite easy to see that the leaked object was NOT released when the ItemHolder was deallocated, so we now what we need to release it in the -dealloc method of ItemHolder (forgetting to do this is a common error, and is something that ARC would do for us automatically).

A portable fix would be to add an implementation as follows:

     - (void) dealloc
     {
       RELEASE(i);
       DEALLOC
     }

Not so simple
.............

Wonderful as leak sanitization is, it is far from perfect. It is subject to false positives, where things are reported as leaks which were intentionally leaked (eg because they are insignificant), often in library code that you don't really have much control over.  To handle that the sanitizer has a suppression mechanism where a file can be specified to contain rules that the sanitizer will use to suppress reporting of false positives.  You need to refer to the LeakSanitizer documentation for the details of that.

The report is also governed by what it considers a leak (which may not be what you think is a leak).  The general principle is that heap memory which is not reachable (either directly or indirectly) from some standard locations is considered leaked, but the exact definition of the standard locations vary.  Usually global variables, static variables, and variables on the stack may all be pointers to memory that prevent the memory from being considered leaks.

There is also the consideration that often memory we would consider leaked (because it contributes to an ever expanding memory footprint of a long running process) is not considered leaked by the sanitiser simply because it is pointed to from within some data structure which is in use.  The leak sanitizer cannot help in this case unless you suspect the problem and deliberately leak that data structure (in which case the sanitizer can help by reporting where the items still in the data structure were created).

Looking at the following code:

     #import <Foundation/Foundation.h>
     #import "Client.h"

     @implementation Client
     - (void) executeCallSequence
     {
       NSString *str = [NSString stringWithFormat:
         @"one little string: %d\n", 100];
       const char *strCharPtr = [str cString];
     }
     @end

     int main(int argv, char** argc)
     {
       Client *client = [[Client alloc] init];

       [[NSAutoreleasePool alloc] init];
       [client executeCallSequence];

       return 0;
     }

So, what do we expect this to do if we build the program with leak checking ('make asan=yes') or run it with a separate leak checker such as valgrind?

Firstly this code creates a Client instance, owned by the main function.  This is because +alloc returns an instance owned by the caller, and -init consumes its receiver and returns an instance owned by the caller, so the alloc/init sequence produces an instance owned by the main function.

Next it creates/enters an autorelease pool, owned by the main function.

Next it executes the method '-[Client executeCallSequence]' which:

Creates an NSString which is NOT owned by the method.

The +stringWithFormat: method creates a new instance and adds it to the current autorelease pool before returning it.

Creates a C string, which is NOT owned by the method.

A non-object return value can't be retained or released, but it conforms to the convention that the memory is not owned by the caller, so the caller need not free it.  The -cString method is free to manage that however it likes (for instance it might return a pointer to some internal memory which exists until the NSString object is deallocated), but typically what's returned is a pointer to memory inside some other object which has been autoreleased.

Finally, the 'return' command means that the program exits with a status of zero.

A simple look at the basic retain count and autorelease rules would say that all the memory is leaked (because the program contains no call to release anything), but there's a bit of behind the scenes magic:  when a thread exits it releases all the autorelease pools created in it which were not already released.  That's not to say that the failure to release the autorelease pool was not a bug (the code should have released it), just that there is a fail-safe behaviour to protect multithreaded programs from this particular programmer error.

So when you consider that, you can see that the autorelease pool is deallocated so the memory of the  pool is actually freed, and the memory of the NSString and C-String inside it are therefore also freed.

This leaves us with the memory of the Client object being leaked.  However, the idea that any unfreed memory is a leak is too simplistic (leak checkers would be useless if they reported so much) so the leak checker only reports some unfreed memory ... stuff that can't be reached from various standard routes.  The main case is that anything pointed to by global or static variables is not considered leaked, but also anything pointed to by a variable in the main() function is not considered leaked.  This is why the Client instance would not normally be reported by a leak checker.